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My wife Helen has asked me to contribute a top-ten list of tips on navigation/orienteering. I couldn't really divide it cleanly into 10 bullets, so this is a collection of ramblings in three areas: the first being on tools and preparation, the second on planning, and the third on keeping track of your position. But first, the disclaimer: although I've been doing this with the Army for about 20 years, and in the Boy Scouts before that, I still get "a little misoriented" on occasion. Navigating with any degree of success either takes a lot of practice or an incredible amount of luck, and I've never been particularly lucky. So the following are a few things that have worked for me during my extensive "practice sessions." - - John
Get the Right Tools, Prepare, and Organize!...
Aside from the map, the compass is probably the most important tool in your kit. There are a lot of bells and whistles available in a compass, but the less moving parts, the more likely it is to continue working in spite of the abuse of racing. One feature that is worth having is an offset adjustment for magnetic declination
I prefer the Brunton Eclipse with its floating disk (vice a needle), which remains fairly readable while I'm on the move. I also like the fact that after its adjusted for magnetic declination, there are true-north index lines that let me use it as a protractor for quickly planning a dead-reckoning route. One of its shortcomings is a lack of any glow-in-the-dark dots, etc. After a short climb on Tories Peak drug out into a nighttime descent in a blizzard, I've permanently added a small light (Photon Micro-light) to the compass's lanyard. A few other bells/whistles to consider when selecting a compass are sighting mirrors/hairlines (very useful if you regularly navigate in relatively featureless locations that are surrounded by prominent distant objects that allow re-section) and an inclinometer (useful to winter mountaineers interested in making avalanche probability assessments).
I also keep a tiny inexpensive survival compass in my map case. It clips to the edge of the map and helps me to keep the map oriented on the run without juggling a compass and map. Yet another place I've found to stick a compass is my bike. It's an old wrist compass (that would otherwise be retired) strapped to my handle bars (so I won't cry on that inevitable day when it gets destroyed in an endo).
A few cautions for those like me with compasses everywhere - when taking a reading ensure you get the most accurate pointing by keeping your compasses away from each other, away from ferrous metal objects (possibly some of your bike components), and never attempt a reading under any power lines that buzz and make your hair stand up.
Here in the Rockies an altimeter has proven to be essential for keeping myself found, and I'd rate it as the number two most important navigating tool in your kit. When steep terrain marginalizes the accuracy of your pace count, the altimeter can tell you when you've reached a planned point to begin a traverse or the like while climbing or descending a nondescript ridge or gully.
Knowing your elevation allows you to use the map's contour lines as you would any other linear feature to do modified compass resections to re-establish your location. My altimeter of choice is the Sherpa by Brunton with its other "weather station" functions (for those times when I can't decide for myself when its cold enough to put on a jacket)..
Maps that don't come with a printed grid will usually have some sort coordinate reference system on their margin. If you'll need to plot coordinates, it's a good idea to take a few minutes to prepare the map while you have access to a flat surface and long straight edge. Margins of the USGS maps for instance have index marks every 1000 meters for UTM coordinates (blue ticks), and every 2.5 minutes for geodetic coordinates (black ticks). The larger scale Trails Illustrated maps are indexed every 5000 meters for UTM (in blue) and every minute for geodetic (in black). If you must plot points from coordinates, it's a good idea to carefully draw a grid for the coordinate system you plan to use with a sharp pen or pencil.
Aside from the Army issued "map protractor" I've seen a lot of UTM plotting templates (also called roamers) out there, but have never found any I was quite happy with. One of the shortcomings with the Army plotting templates is that they only marked with scales of 1:50,000 and 1:25,000 (great if you only use military or European topo maps). My solution was to make my own UTM plotters using a graphics program on the computer. I create plotters and bar-scales to my liking, then increase or decrease the scale (using 3d grade math and a little trial and error) until my scales matched the distances on the map's bar scale, then print them on overhead projector plastic. Download my UTM plotting templates in 1:24,000, 1:40,680, 1:59,000 scales, and 1:90,000 (PowerPoint file). If you have unique scale requirements, this document is a good start point for making your own.
I've created a quick class on plotting UTM coordinatesthat you can download . If you think you'll find yourself faced with the unpleasant task of plotting geodetic coordinates (and you want to plot them accurately) - follow this link and read on - if not, this is good place to skip ahead. If you still haven't had enough of coordinate systems (either you're a masochist or are toying with the idea of becoming a Cartographer), another very informative website is maintained by the University of Colorado with materials authored by Peter H. Dana, Department of Geography, University of Texas at Austin.
The best I've found isn't much more than a ruggedized zip-lock baggie made by SealLine, with the sides reinforced with webbing and plastic D-rings at the four corners for attaching to either yourself or your boat's guntle or deck. I like to keep the map case, with compass inside (so its readable through the plastic), attached by mini-biners to the shoulder-straps of my pack or hydration system.
Fancy covers with penholders and the like add weight without much needed function, and the more zippers and Velcro you have to get through to get to your map, the less often you're likely to look at it. Keeping the map readable while biking is always a trick. Most map cases for handlebar mount are ok for a trip to the park, but they're too small if you're covering any distance. I mounted an old pair of aero bars that were gathering dust to my MTB; then cut a small section of wire shelving and attached it to the top of the aero bars with cable ties. A mini bungee keeps my over-sized map strapped where I can glance at it at any time.
Sort of related to map cases, for the (old fashioned) paper maps I use a lot (like the Pikes Peak USGS) and want to keep intact, I cover them with Rubbermaid clear contact paper. It only costs about five bucks a roll at Target or Wal-Mart and it folds much easier than the traditional acetate map covering material.
Another technique picked up in the Army is a pace cord. A small piece of accessory cord with 10 beads is used abacus-style to keep track of distances covered in 100-meter increments. Plastic beads on 3mm cord are the norm, but I've found that larger wooden beads don't arbitrarily slide around on the cord and are easier to manipulate while wearing gloves. Measure the number of paces it takes for you to cover 100 meters, you'll be amazed at how consistent your pace is. Do it under a variety of conditions - up hill, down hill, with a pack, at a trot, in the dark… and make a note of them. The hardest thing to get a "feel" for is how to adjust your pace-count for weaving back and forth on a route covered with trees, shrubs, and boulders.
On the bike - get a computer with the minimum of fancy functions that wont break or leak the first time you take it out. My $15 Vetta has outlasted just about everything on my bike but the frame. Measure the circumference of the tires you run and calibrate accordingly - the default is never right. Write the measurement down somewhere (like under your bike seat) so you don't have to re-measure every time you change a battery.
I'd already mentioned adding a small light for those times when you're still out on trail in the dark in spite of your best intentions. A red lens is the easiest on your night vision, but note that many maps and compasses are not red-light readable. The light I use is red, but things like the red markings on the compass will "disappear," and the purple or fucia colored map updates (usually the new trail you're looking for) on the USGS maps become all but invisible under red light.
The need for sharp pencils or fine tip pens goes without saying. Keep your markings small but identifiable to keep your map in readable condition - a small dot is either too hard to find or impossible to erase - I use a dot with four small ticks (like crosshairs) radiating from its center. If you're one to make marks on your map case, a dilemma is that markings made with water soluble pens come off with rain, river spray, and sweat, and often time markings made with permanent markers wont come off a map case with any amount of soaking in alcohol.
An alternative is to use the water-soluble pens, then cover the marks with small pieces of scotch tape until you need to clean them off. Neon highlighters of various colors are useful to highlight your routes, but more than a couple of trips back over the same area will result in a mess.
Use it only if you have no confidence or pride, and must stoop to using modern technology to save your hide (actually GPS could help to ensuring your race support folks - who may not get out much - don't get lost). The most common problem encountered is not ensuring that the Datum set in your GPS unit matches that of your map. Most maps you'll find these days will use the WGS-84 datum, therefore you'll find that as the default setting in most GPSs. However, lots of the USGS topos are still annotated in the NAD-27 datum.
The next most common problem is trying to take a reading from a location where satellite signals from one or more directions are blocked, such as up against a cliff, in a deep canyon etc. To get an accurate fix, the GPS unit will pick the best four satellites visible that give a good three-dimensional triangulation of your location. Since the Department of Defense adjusted Selective Availability to zero this May, if you have unobstructed view of the sky there is no reason your GPS should not be accurate to within 15 meters horizontally (vertical positioning is a bit less accurate with GPS).
(A note from Helen: What John is trying to say, in not quite enough words ;) is that you need to know how to navigate with out a GPS. Chances are you won't be able to use one during a race, and you need to not be dependent on one every time you go out into the wild. We do have one, and we do use it to double check a location, mark points we want to return to, and to help set up trails and routes for other outings.)
Plan Your Route BEFORE You Move Out!
This may seem obvious, but you'd be surprised how many people take off up the wrong trail because they started 150 meters from where they thought they were (a mistake I've made a hundred times)..
Plot any points you can before you move, if you plan to do it on the trail, it never fails it will be dark, raining, you'll fighting 60 mph wind gusts on the side of cliff the next time you get a chance. How-to's on plotting UTM and geodetic coordinates.
These are points along the way where you will reconfirm your position, and as such they should be readily identifiable, and not easily confused with similar landmarks nearby. I try to plan a checkpoint that meets these criteria at least every 15 to 20 minutes along my route. If you get off course and can't find a checkpoint, you can backtrack to your last known point to figure out where you went wrong. I also look for distinguishable surveyed elevation points along the route where I can recalibrate my altimeter.
A long time ago when I did a lot of walking with my infantry platoon, I had a commander who'd spent most of his time with armor units tell me that bar none, the "shortest distance between two points is a road." Much as I hated to admit it, he was usually right. I still often can't resist the temptation to use the old geometric rule of taking the straight line, but usually apply a criteria whereby the straight line route must be at least a third shorter than the road or trail and relatively clear of thick brush, deadfall, or talus.
In planning your route, ensure that you have considered "hand rails" (linear features you parallel) and "back stops" (linear features you'll run into if you miss and go past your objective) where appropriate. Ideally you can identify features on all sides of your route that will keep you from straying too far off course. Some of these will also provide you with "go to you-know-where" options if you do get off track, if someone gets injured and you need to abort.
If the location you are looking for is off the beaten path, and on unremarkable terrain. The best way to make sure you find it the first time is to use an "attack point." An attack point is a feature that is 100% identifiable (trail junction, creek intersection, hilltop, etc) that is ideally less than 500 meters from your point. From the attack point, you will dead-reckon, keeping your eye on the compass and a careful pace count to the checkpoint.
When moving cross-country, linear features are you highways. A ridgeline is most often going to provide you with the least obstructed and physically demanding routes, as well as the easiest terrain on which to stay oriented. Aside from providing a generally well defined route, the ridge keeps you high enough to orient yourself by looking at several nearby features. The valley floor is a close second, but just as it tends to collect precipitation, it attracts heavy vegetation and deadfall.
During self supported events (like on your average weekend outing or training event), get in the habit of planning points where you'll resupply water, preferably upstream from locations with "Ranch" in the title. Its easier to keep on track if you don't have to deviate significantly from your planned route because you come to the realization that you've run out of water.outing), get in the habit of planning points where you'll resupply water, preferably upstream from locations with "Ranch" in the title.
Trails appear, fade, disappear, and get rerouted during the life of a map; paved roads, powerlines, and other signs of civilization mostly just tend to appear… hills and valleys (generally) don't. Hiking trails, particularly ones that are steeply laid out, are often re-routed with more switchbacks to correct for erosion problems. Take note of the date your map was published, as well as when photographic updates were posted. Even a "new" map may be based on not-so-new information.
It used to be that the only maps worth using for orienteering were the 1:24,000 USGS 7.5 Minute Series Topos . The increasingly available Trails Unlimited maps by National Geographic are pretty good, but seem to come in whatever scale is most convenient to fit the area to the map sheet (most common seems to be 1:40,680). Getting accustomed to the scale, as well as the contour intervals really helps in associating terrain features on the map with the actual obstacles you must negotiate on the ground..
Keeping track - This is a very individual process, but for me it starts with the delicate task of balancing confidence and caution. This is especially true when you're in a competitive situation where the seconds or minutes you spend double checking a point where you must make a decision can either equate to time lost where you could have been moving in the correct direction, or worse, the time price you'll pay correcting for having chosen the wrong direction.
I tend to err on the side of caution, but try to load as much of the time I dedicate to being cautious into the period while I'm moving - this keeps my idle position checks to an absolute minimum. I also use as much time as I have available before the starting gun to plan my routes (if we know any of the control points before the start). Or in the absence of that knowledge: I try to anticipate to where the controls might be and go through the mental drill of planning primary and alternative routes. This mainly serves to give me a good mental "feel" for the terrain we'll be moving through without having the luxury of actually walking it, but in many cases I'll guess right, conserving time (and stress) out on the course.
Before I start a section of movement, I adhere to the carpenter's philosophy of "measure twice… cut once." I measure the azimuth and distance and quickly decide how important it will be on this leg to rigidly adhere to these elements (based on the availability of terrain features for cross-references). I make a habit of going through this process twice, and in between I apply the common sense/don't "lose the forest for the trees" checks - most mistakes at this point are the stupid ones where you measure upside down or backwards - if I find discrepancies at any point, I'll do the whole process a third time (when I'm fatigued, I find myself doing it a third time a lot more often). I try to keep the legs between decision points short (under 1,000 meters) and the elements characterizing the decision points themselves distinctive.
To be distinctive, the discernable elements of my control points should include at least two of the following: major terrain feature, orientation of feature, relationship to surrounding features, secondary or man-made features, elevation, direction of slope, degree of slope, vegetation, etc. - the more unique attributes of the point, the better. Establishing these control points often ensures I'm never more than a few minutes from a 100% known point. I may jot down some notes on the margin of my map if it will be a complex route. When I start moving I'm already visualizing what the terrain should look like along the way and at my next decision point.
My thoughts as I begin a short leg may go something like this: "I'm starting from a trail at the 8,240 foot contour line on a distinct ridgeline and want to avoid a climb by shortcutting to a trail on the next ridge; so I will traverse along the side of the hill by following a very rough azimuth of 15 degrees magnetic, targeting a prominent switchback on the trail at the 8,320 foot contour. At 100 meters I can see a fallen tree that will force me to detour well to the left. Beyond a hundred meters I must visualize the terrain based on the clues I have available, most notably a map depicting terrain in the form of contour lines and vegetation in the form of colors. At 200 meters along my route I will expect the slope to be getting steeper, and the fall line will change from west to northwest. At about 400 meters I should be a few hundred feet above a distinct draw, so even though the map contours are not detailed enough to depict this, there may be obvious evidence of water runoff that feeds into the draw. At 500 meters I expect the fall line to start changing to the southwest and the slope to become more gentle, and will be skirting the east side of a large clearing. I expect to reach the next ridge and the trail after about 600 meters."
In route, I continually confirm my position by comparing what I am actually seeing matches with what I expected to see, and adjust my calculations based on minor obstacles I encounter along the way. I look down at my compass to confirm direction of movement, then pick out a distinct feature on my heading to move toward; when I reach that point I'll repeat the process. Depending on the terrain and visibility, I'm glancing at my compass every 15 to 60 seconds; and if I'm climbing or descending, I'll be looking at the altimeter about every two minutes. Some references say you should always be able to pinpoint your position to with a half-mile. I try to make a point of knowing my position within a 100 meters or less. Because I've kept track of my position all along the way, there is no need to stop for a lengthy confirmation of my position when I come to my next decision point, and I've already have a mental plan for the following leg before I get there. When I come up on the decision point, I may or may not pause as I move to the next leg. On a long event, the seconds and minutes saved can add up to hours!
Now, what do you do when get to you think your control point is and your landmark (in my example above, a switchback on a trail) isn't there? First keep your cool. Then, mentally backtrack, comparing what you saw with what was on your map. Did you make any additional detours because of obstacles, did you tend to drift one way or the other because the going was a little easier? Where you paying attention the whole last leg, at what point did you let your mind drift (or when was the last time you were 100% sure of your location?). Could you have crossed your "handrail" or "backstop." Or, could you be exactly where you want to be, but the trail had been rerouted slightly since the map was printed as an erosion control measure (look for evidence of an overgrown trail)?
Thinking things out may help you decide whether to backtrack to your last known point, do a local search, determine location by plotting a resection, shoot for a closer obvious landmark, or simply drive on. Map reading and orienteering can be as easy or painful as you want to make it - with the key to keeping it easy being focus. Practice often, in situations where you know the area (it makes it possible to evaluate how your doing). With practice comes confidence and your ability to apply what you know under the more stressful circumstances of racing (or hopefully not - survival).